Three Examples of Art Music in the 20th Century

American jazz singer and songwriter Billie Holiday in New York Urban center in 1947.

A revolution occurred in twentieth century music listening as the radio gained popularity worldwide, and new media and technologies were developed to record, capture, reproduce and distribute music. Because music was no longer limited to concerts and clubs, information technology became possible for music artists to quickly gain fame nationwide and sometimes worldwide. Conversely, audiences were able to exist exposed to a wider range of music than ever before, giving rise to the phenomenon of globe music.

Contents

• 1 Influence of Twentieth century music
• ii Classical
  • 2.1 Contemporary Classical Music
• 3 A Cultural Gap
• 4 Pluralism and Multifariousness
• 5 Folk music
  • 5.one Bluegrass Music
• vi Popular music
  • 6.ane Pop and classical music
• 7 Music and Morality
  • 7.1 Dejection
  • 7.ii Country music
  • 7.three Jazz
  • 7.4 Rock and roll
  • seven.five Progressive Rock
  • 7.6 Punk rock
  • vii.7 Heavy metal
  • 7.8 Disco, funk, hip hop, salsa, and soul
  • 7.9 Electronic music
  • 7.10 World music
  • 7.11 New Age music
• 8 Notes
• nine References
• 10 Credits

Music performances became increasingly visual with the broadcast and recording of music videos and concerts. Music of all kinds also became increasingly portable. Headphones allowed people sitting next to each other to listen to entirely different performances or share the same performance. Copyright laws were strengthened, merely new technologies likewise made information technology easier to record and reproduce copyrighted music illegally.

Influence of Twentieth century music

Twentieth century music brought new freedom and broad experimentation with new musical styles and forms that challenged the accustomed rules of music of before periods. The invention of electronic instruments and the synthesizer in the mid-twentieth century revolutionized popular music and accelerated the development of new forms of music. Eastern, Center-Eastern, Latin, and Western sounds began to mix in some forms. Faster modes of transportation allowed musicians and fans to travel more widely to perform or listen. Amplification permitted behemothic concerts to be heard by those with the least expensive tickets, and the inexpensive reproduction and transmission or circulate of music gave rich and poor akin near equal admission to loftier quality music performances.

Classical

In the twentieth century, many composers connected to work in forms that derived from the nineteenth century, including Rachmaninoff and Edward Elgar. However, modernism in music became increasingly prominent and important; among the offset modernists were Bartók, Stravinsky, and Ives. Schoenberg and other twelve-tone composers such equally Alban Berg and Anton von Webern carried this trend to its most extreme class past abandoning tonality altogether, along with its traditional conception of melody and harmony. The Impressionists, including Debussy and Ravel, sought new textures and turned their back on traditional forms, while often retaining more traditional harmonic progressions. Others such equally Francis Poulenc and the grouping of composers known equally Les 6 wrote music in opposition to the Impressionistic and Romantic ideas of the time. Composers such every bit Milhaud and Gershwin combined classical and jazz idioms. Others, such as Shostakovich, Prokofiev, Hindemith, Boulez, and Villa-Lobos expanded the classical palette to include more dissonant elements without going to the extremes of the twelve-tone and serial composers.

Pianist Arthur Rubinstein in 1962

Belatedly Romantic nationalism spilled over into British and American music of the early twentieth century. Composers such equally Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Aaron Copland nerveless folk songs and used folk themes in many of their major compositions.

In the 1950s, aleatoric music was popularized by composers like John Cage. Composers of this area sought to gratis music from its rigidity, placing the performance to a higher place the composition. Similarly, many composers sought to break from traditional performance rituals by incorporating theater and multimedia into their compositions, going beyond sound itself to achieve their creative goals. In some cases the line is difficult to draw between genres. See rock opera.

Composers were quick to adopt developing electronic technology. As early as the 1940s, composers such equally Olivier Messiaen incorporated electronic instruments into live performance. Recording engineering science was used to produce art music, as well. The musique concrète of the belatedly 1940s and 1950s was produced by editing together natural and industrial sounds. Steve Reich created music by manipulating record recordings of people speaking, and after went on to compose procedure music for traditional instruments based on such recordings. Other notable pioneers of electronic music include Edgard Varèse, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Pauline Oliveros, Luigi Nono, and Krzysztof Penderecki. As more electronic engineering matured, so did the music. Belatedly in the century, the personal computer began to be used to create art music. In ane mutual technique, a microphone is used to tape live music, and a program processes the music in existent time and generates some other layer of sound. Pieces accept also been written algorithmically based on the analysis of large information sets.

Procedure music is linked to minimalism, a simplification of musical themes and evolution with motifs which are repeated over and over. Early minimalist compositions of the 1960s such as those by Terry Riley, Steve Reich, and Philip Drinking glass stemmed from aleatoric and electronic music. Later on, minimalism was adjusted to a more traditional symphonic setting by composers including Reich, Glass, and John Adams. Minimalism was practiced heavily throughout the latter one-half of the century and has carried over into the twenty-start century, as well, with composers like Arvo Pärt, Henryk Górecki and John Taverner working in the more pop "mystic minimalism" variant.

Contemporary Classical Music

In the broadest sense, gimmicky music is any music being written in the present day. In the context of classical music the term applies to music written in the final half century or and then, peculiarly works postal service-1960. The argument over whether the term applies to music in any style, or whether it applies just to composers writing avant-garde music, or "modernist" music is a discipline of serious fence. There is some use of "Contemporary" as a synonym for "Modern," specially in academic settings, whereas others are more restrictive and utilise the term only to presently living composers and their works. Since information technology is a word that describes a time frame, rather than a item style or unifying idea, there are no universally agreed on criteria for making these distinctions.

Many contemporary composers working the early twenty-first century were prominent figures in the twentieth century. Some composers such as Alvin Etler, Oliver Knussen, Thomas Adès, and Michael Daugherty did non rise to prominence until late in the twentieth century. For more examples encounter: List of 21st century classical composers.

A Cultural Gap

At the beginning of the twentieth century the "catholic principles" that traversed the expanse of history were no longer considered eternal or immutable. Subsequently the idea of transient artistic standards defective upstanding underpinnings became, in role, the basis of Arnold Schoenberg'due south explorations into serial techniques and the resulting "emancipation of dissonace." For the advocates of atonal serialism the Ideal concept of value in fine art being the result of the union of beauty, truth and goodness was viewed as a quaint vestige of a bygone era.

The new music born of purly intellectual and formulaic principles resulted in music that was by and large perceptually and cognitively opaque. Yet serialism and atonality connected to hold sway for much of the later half of the twentieth century. The appearance of atonal music was thought to be a natural and historical progression evolving out of Wagnerian chromaticism and thus held a position of privilege and inevitability.

Nonetheless this view has been challenged with increasing regularity. Psychologist Walter J. Ong's comparing of artificial computer language and tongue is very instructive. Estimator languages, Ong writes, "do not grow out of the unconscious but directly out of the consciousness...the rules of grammar in natural languages are used first and can be bathetic from usage and stated explicitly in words simply with difficulty and never completely." Serial music, in which rules are divers before the actual creative process begins is like in this regard.

This view is shared by Leonard Bernstein in his music/linguistic communication illustration in the Harvard Lectures. Alluding to Schoenberg'southward series methods Bernstein states: "The trouble is that the new musical 'rules' of Schoenberg are not apparently based on innate awareness, on the intuition of tonal relationships. They are similar rules of an artificial language, and therefore must be learned. This would seem to lead to what used to exist called 'form without content,' or form at the expense of content—structuralism for its ain sake."

Music historian, Richard Taruskin, echoes this view when he writes, "Serial music conveys trivial, considering for all its vaunted complexity it is shallow, all surface, with no underlying, unconscious and innate deep construction." The trendy ideological claim of historical "inevitability" doesn't hold up in this context. The disconnect between the "content of the utterance" and the "style of its delivery" becomes a constant irritant to those seeking to find meaning and pleasure in their come across with music. Hence, the "cultural gap" betwixt creator and audition.

Pluralism and Diversity

For the tonal arts these realities have led to what musicologist Leonard B. Meyer refers to as a "fluctuating stasis" in which a plethora of musical styles would coexist in an increasingly diverse world. He writes: "Our culture—cosmopolitan earth culture—is, and will continue to exist, diverse and pluralistic. A multiplicity of styles, techniques and movements, ranging from the charily conservative to the rampantly experimental, volition exist side by side: tonality and serialism, improvised and aleatoric music, as well every bit jazz with its many idioms,and pop music... Through paraphrase borrowing, style simulation, and modeling, past and present volition, modifying ane another, come together not only inside culture, but within the oeuvre of a unmarried creative person and within a single piece of work of art."

The result of diversity and pluralism is that at that place remains no "triumphant" style in the realm of "classical" or "serious" art music; a condition that should non be considered either negative or undesirable.

Folk music

Folk music, in the original sense of the term, is music by and of the people. Folk music arose, and best survives, in societies not all the same affected past mass communication and the commercialization of civilization. It normally was shared and performed past the entire community (not by a special grade of expert or professional performers, possibly excluding the idea of amateurs), and was transmitted by word of mouth (oral tradition).

During the twentieth century, the term folk music took on a second significant: it describes a detail kind of popular music which is culturally descended from or otherwise influenced past traditional folk music, such as with Bob Dylan and other singer-songwriters. This music, in relation to pop music, is marked by a greater musical simplicity, acknowledgment of tradition, frequent socially conscious lyrics, and is similar to country, bluegrass, and other genres in fashion.

In addition, folk was too borrowed by composers in other genres. The work of Aaron Copland clearly draws on American folk music. In addition, Paul Simon has drawn from both the folk music of Peru and South Africa, and was clearly instrumental in increasing the popularity of groups such as Ladysmith Black Mambazo although it is arguable that The Tokens' The Lion Sleeps Tonight is the first instance of such a crossover. The Indian sitar clearly influenced George Harrison and others.

However, many native musical forms have also plant themselves overwhelmed by the variety of new music. Western classical music from prior to the twentieth century is arguably more than popular at present than it always has been even as modernistic classical forms struggle to discover an audition. Rock and Roll has also had an issue on native musical forms, although many countries such as Germany, Japan and Canada all have their own thriving native stone and curl scenes that accept often found an audience outside their home market.

Bluegrass Music

Bluegrass was started in the late 1930s past Bill Monroe. Performers such as Earl Scruggs and Lester Flatt who were originally members of Monroe'southward Blue Grass Boys further adult this mode of music.

Popular music

Popular music, sometimes abbreviated popular music, is music belonging to whatsoever of a number of musical styles that are broadly pop or intended for mass consumption and propagated over the radio and like media—in other words, music that forms part of popular civilization.

Popular music dates at least equally far back every bit the mid-nineteenth century. In the United states, much of it evolved from folk music and black culture. It includes Broadway tunes, ballads and singers such equally Frank Sinatra.

Popular and classical music

The relationship (particularly, the relative value) of classical music and popular music is a controversial question:

Keen divisions between 'folk' and 'popular,' and 'popular' and 'art,' are incommunicable to find... arbitrary criteria [are used] to define the complement of 'popular.' 'Art' music, for case, is generally regarded equally past nature complex, difficult, demanding; 'pop' music and then has to be defined as 'simple,' 'accessible,' 'facile.' But many pieces commonly thought of equally 'art' (Handel's 'Hallelujah Chorus,' many Schubert songs, many Verdi arias) have qualities of simplicity; conversely, information technology is by no means obvious that the Sex Pistols' records were 'accessible,' Frank Zappa's work 'elementary,' or Billie Holiday's 'facil.'^[one]

Moreover, composers such as Scott Joplin and George Gershwin tried to cater to both popular and high brow tastes, and for the most function succeeded at both. In addition, the argument is not new—composers every bit varied every bit Mozart and Arthur Sullivan had no difficulty in catering to popular gustatory modality when it was required, although their credentials as serious composers are also unchallenged. Classical music influenced popular music in picture show scores, theater, popular songs, and in the instrumentation used in popular music. Too, electronic instruments and styles were incorporated into some classical pieces.

Music and Morality

It has become axiomatic that in the twentieth century the condition of art music in Western civilization has undergone a transformation that few could have envisaged one hundred years agone. The reasons for this transformation are many and varied including the influence of technology, the media, multiculturalism, commercialism, the increased emphasis on visual media and various philosophical, ideological and social changes.

Perhaps the almost pregnant philosophical change in out attitudes nearly art music (and art in general) is that faith, for so long the "moral compass" of guild, is no longer the potent force in guiding society in the matters of morality and ethics, resulting in what educator and writer Allan Bloom referred to equally a condition of "moral and cultural relativism." One issue of an increasingly secular order has been that artists are less aware of the moral and ethical ability of art and in many cases have slipped into a relativist mindset regarding their artistic endeavors.

Blues

Blues is a song and instrumental musical form which evolved from African American spirituals, shouts, piece of work songs and chants and has its primeval stylistic roots in West Africa. Blues has been a major influence on after American and Western popular music, finding expression in ragtime, jazz, big bands, rhythm and blues, rock and ringlet, and country music, as well equally conventional pop songs and fifty-fifty modern classical music.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Westward.C. Handy took blues across the tracks and made information technology respectable, even "loftier-toned."

Country music

Country music, once known as Land and Western music, is a popular musical form developed in the southern United states, with roots in traditional folk music, spirituals, and the dejection.

Vernon Dalhart was the outset country vocalizer to have a nation-wide hit (May, 1924, with "The Wreck Of Onetime '97").

Some trace the origins of modern country music to ii seminal influences and a remarkable coincidence. Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family are widely considered to be the founders of land music, and their songs were first captured at an historic recording session in Bristol, Tennessee on Baronial 1, 1927, where Ralph Peer was the talent scout and sound recordist. Information technology is considered possible to categorize many land singers every bit being either from the Jimmie Rodgers strand or the Carter Family strand of country music.

State music also received an unexpected boost from new technologies. When ASCAP, which was dominated by Tin Pan Alley composers feared contest from broadcast music, they stopped licensing their copyrights to radio stations. Their replacement, BMI, was dominated by country artists and gave the genre a much wider audience.

Country music is adequately controversial, with fans and detractors feeling strongly about the music'due south worth, values, and meaning. President George H. W. Bush alleged October, 1990 "Country Music Calendar month" commemorating U.s. characteristics present in country such equally, "our faith in God, our devotion to family, and our appreciation for the value of freedom and hard piece of work." Unsaid in the evocation of these bourgeois values is a view often held past detractors of country as conservative, (poor white), sexist, and racist music. Professional land guitarist Aaron Fox explains that, "for many cosmopolitan Americans, especially, land is 'bad' music precisely because it is widely understood to signify an explicit merits to whiteness, not as an unmarked, neutral status of lacking (or trying to shed) race, but as a marked, foregrounded claim of cultural identity—a bad whiteness...unredeemed by ethnicity, folkloric authenticity, progressive politics, or the noblesse oblige of elite musical culture."

Jazz

Jazz is a musical art grade characterized by blue notes, syncopation, swing, call and response, polyrhythms, and improvisation. It has been chosen the commencement original art form to develop in the United States of America and partakes of both popular and classical musics.

Information technology has roots in Westward African cultural and musical expression, in African American music traditions, including blues and ragtime, and European military band music. Later on originating in African-American communities around the beginning of the twentieth century, jazz gained international popularity by the 1920s. Since then, jazz has had a profoundly pervasive influence on other musical styles worldwide including classical and popular music.

Jazz has as well evolved into many sometimes contrasting subgenres including smooth jazz and gratis jazz.

Rock and roll

Rock and roll emerged as a defined musical style in America in the 1950s, though elements of rock and gyre can be seen in rhythm and blues records as far back every bit the 1920s. Early rock and roll combined elements of blues, boogie woogie, jazz, and rhythm and blues, and is also influenced past traditional Appalachian folk music, gospel and country and western.

Chuck Drupe, Fats Domino, and Elvis Presley were notable performers in the 1950s. The Beatles were function of the "British invasion" in the 1960s. In 1951, the words "rock, roll" were used in a song chosen "60 Minute Human," which was banned due to its implications. By 1953 such ballads as "World Angel" and "Gee" were played past notable disc jockeys in Cleveland and New York as Allen Freed and Murray the K. By 1956, Dick Clark had one of several pop Goggle box programs "American Bandstand" to show teenagers dancing to the new kind of music aimed especially at teens and adolescents. Though mocked past older generation every bit "jungle or the devil'due south music," its popularity grew through the next 10 years until past the end of the century it was arguably the near pop form of music on the planet, with fans from every age group in almost every country of the world.

However, attempting to allocate Stone and Roll every bit a unmarried genre continues to be difficult every bit it can encompass a wide multifariousness of musical forms. It can be equally carefully crafted as a song by Queen, or an anthology produced by Phil Spector, or as straightforward as a three-chord composition by The Ramones, or as poetic every bit a song written past Bob Dylan. Although it is conspicuously defined past the use of guitars and pulsate kits, nigh no instrument can now be excluded from a stone ring, including the piccolo trumpet used in The Beatles' Penny Lane, the cello that graced most of the work of the Electrical Light Orchestra, or even "Weird Al" Yankovic's squeeze box. Rock revolutionized theater. See rock musical and rock opera.

Progressive Rock

Progressive rock was a movement to incorporate the more complex structures and instrumentation of jazz and classical music into the limitations of Rock and Coil. Mainly a European move, information technology started in the United Kingdom in the 1960s with bands like Pink Floyd and Genesis, and reached its superlative popularity during the early 1970s, when albums like Pink Floyd's "Dark Side of the Moon" and Mike Oldfield's "Tubular Bells" dominated the charts.

Major characteristics were long compositions, circuitous lyrics, a wide range of instruments, unusual time signatures, and the inclusion of long solo passages for different instruments.

Punk stone

Punk rock was originally a style of difficult rock played at fast speeds with simple lyrics and fewer than three chords, which originated in the mid 1970s, with bands like Tv set, the Ramones, and the Sex Pistols. The main instruments used were electric guitar, electric bass, and drums. It evolved into punk (even faster songs with shouted lyrics), New Wave (more pop influenced and used electronic keyboards) and post punk (originally sounded more, evolved more into new moving ridge) in the 1980s, and these evolved farther into punkabilly (a fusion of punk rock and rockabilly), ska punk (a fusion with ska), grunge (a mix of punk rock and alternative rock), pop punk (a development of punk rock with cleaner sounds), Emo (emotionally-charged punk stone), gothic stone (introverted lyrics), and many more genres.

Heavy metallic

Heavy metal is a course of music characterized by aggressive, driving rhythms and highly amplified distorted guitars, generally with grandiose lyrics and virtuosic instrumentation. Primal to this genre is the use of riffs every bit a melodic and narrative element.

Heavy metal is a development of blues, blues rock and rock. Its origins lie in the hard rock bands like Led Zeppelin, Aerosmith, Deep Regal and Blackness Sabbath, who between 1967 and 1974 took dejection and stone and created a hybrid with a heavy, guitar and drums centered sound. Heavy metal had its peak popularity in the 1980s, during which many of the now existing subgenres showtime evolved. Though not equally commercially successful as it was then, heavy metallic yet has a large worldwide post-obit.

Some subgenres brought most through either natural evolution or the convergence of metal with other genres include, but are not limited to Thrash, Death Metal, Industrial, and Black Metallic.

Disco, funk, hip hop, salsa, and soul

Soul music is fundamentally rhythm and dejection, which grew out of the African-American gospel and blues traditions during the tardily 1950s and early 1960s in the Us. Over time, much of the broad range of R&B extensions in African-American popular music, generally, also has come to be considered soul music. Traditional soul music usually features individual singers backed past a traditional band consisting of rhythm section and horns, as exemplified by Aretha Franklin.

Funk is a distinct style of music originated by African-Americans, for case, James Brown and his band members (especially Maceo and Melvin Parker), and groups like The Meters. Funk best can be recognized by its syncopated rhythms; thick bass line (often based on an "on the one" beat); razor-sharp rhythm guitars; chanted or hollered vocals (equally that of Cameo or the Bar-Kays); strong, rhythm-oriented horn sections; prominent percussion; an upbeat attitude; African tones; danceability; and potent jazzy influences (equally in the music of Herbie Hancock, George Knuckles, Eddie Harris, and others).

Salsa music is a diverse and predominantly Caribbean rhythm that is popular in many Latin countries. The word is the same as the salsa meaning sauce. Who applied this name to the music and dance and why remains unclear, simply all concur that the name fits, metaphorically referring the music and trip the light fantastic toe beingness "saucy" and "tasty." Still, the term has been used by Cuban immigrants in New York analogously to swing.^[ii]

Disco is an up-tempo style of trip the light fantastic music that originated in the early 1970s, mainly from funk, salsa, and soul music, pop originally with gay and black audiences in big U.Southward. cities, and derives its name from the French give-and-take discothèque (meaning nightclub).

Hip hop music is traditionally composed of ii main elements: rapping (as well known as MC'ing) and DJing, and arose when DJs began isolating and repeating the percussion break from funk or disco songs.

Electronic music

The twentieth century brought the showtime truly innovative musical instrument in centuries—the theremin. For centuries earlier, music had either been created past drawing hair beyond taught metal strings (string instruments), constricting vibrating air (woodwinds and brass) or hitting something (percussion). The theremin, which operated by interrupting a magnetic field effectually the instrument, did not fifty-fifty take to exist touched to produce a tone. Although its inventor (Leon Theremin) originally adult it for classical music as a fashion to prevent the repetitive stress injuries that oft plagued musicians, information technology found use both as an instrument for scoring movies (Forbidden Planet) and in rock and curlicue (The Beach Boys' Expert Vibrations).

As noted above, in the years following Earth War II, electronic music was embraced by progressive composers, and was hailed as a way to exceed the limits of traditional instruments. Although electronic music began in the globe of classical composition, by the 1960s Wendy Carlos had popularized electronic music through the use of the synthesizer developed by Robert Moog with ii notable albums The Well-Tempered Synthesizer and Switched-On Bach.

In the 1970s musicians such as Tangerine Dream, Suzanne Ciani, Klaus Schulze, Kraftwerk, Vangelis, Brian Eno, Jean Michel Jarre, and the Japanese composers Isao Tomita and Kitaro further popularized electronic music, and the film industry also began to brand all-encompassing use of electronic soundtracks. From the belatedly 1970s onward, much popular music was adult on synthesizers past pioneering groups like Heaven 17, The Human League, Art of Racket, and New Gild. The development of the techno audio in Detroit, Michigan and house music in Chicago, Illinois in the early to late 1980s, and the later new beat and acid house movements of the late 1980s and early 1990s all fueled the development and acceptance of electronic music into the mainstream and introduced electronic dance music to nightclubs.

Subgenres include, but are not limited to, a variety of trip the light fantastic oriented music (Techno, Trance, Goa, House, Drum and Bass, Jungle, Intermission Beats) as well as IDM, Trip Hop, Ambient, Dark Moving ridge, and Experimental. Because of the recent explosion of electronic music, the lines between electronic subgeneres can be fuzzy and some of the above mentioned may be considered redundant or further subgenres themselves.

Earth music

To brainstorm with, all the various musics listed in the 1980s under the broad category of world music were folk forms from all around the world, grouped together in order to brand a greater bear upon in the commercial music market. Since then, even so, globe music has both influenced and been influenced past many different genres like hip hop, popular, and jazz. The term is usually used for all music fabricated in a traditional way and outside of the Anglo-Saxon world, thus encompassing music from Africa, Latin America, Asia, and parts of Europe, and music by not native English speakers in Anglo-Saxon countries, like Native Americans or Indigenous Australians.

World music radio programs these days will frequently be playing African or reggae artists, crossover Bhangra, Cretan Music, and Latin American jazz groups, etc.

New Age music

Electronic and world music, together with progressive rock and religious music are the elements from which new age music has developed. Works within this genre tend to be predominantly peaceful in overall style merely with an accent on energy and gentle vibrancy. Pieces are equanimous to aid meditation, to energize yoga, tai chi and exercise sessions or to encourage connections to the planet World (in the sense of a spiritual concept of Mother Earth or, mayhap Gaia). There are besides new age compositions which sit equally comfortably in the world music category.

New age music has adult from genre-crossing work like Neil Diamond's soundtrack music for the film Jonathan Livingston Seagull, from alternative jazz/rock/classical bands like 3rd Ear Band or Quintessence and experimental work in general. 1 advantage of this category is that it enables musicians the freedom to do piece of work which might have been stifled elsewhere. Enthusiasts of new age music generally share a set of cadre common understandings including a belief in the spirit and in the power to modify the world for the better in peaceful means.

Pop new historic period artists of the twentieth century include Suzanne Ciani, Enya, Yanni, Kitaro, George Winston (solo piano), and many more. Labels include Private Music, Windham Colina, Narada, Higher Octave amongst others. Individual Music and Windham Colina later merged into the BMG group and reorganized under RCA/Victor, while Narada joined with Higher Octave and EMI.

Notes

1. ↑ Richard Middleton, Studying Popular Music (Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0335152759).
2. ↑ Alan Jones and Jussi Kantonen, Saturday Night Forever: The Story of Disco (Chicago Review Press, 2000, ISBN 978-1556524110).

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Ewen, David. The complete volume of 20th century music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1959. OCLC 615607
• Gardner, Edward Foote. Popular Songs of the Twentieth Century. vol. 1, St. Paul, MN: Paragon House, 2000. ISBN 1557787891
• Jones, Alan, and Jussi Kantonen. Saturday Night Forever: The Story of Disco. Chicago Review Press, 2000. ISBN 978-1556524110
• Machlis, Joseph. Introduction to contemporary music. New York: W.Due west. Norton, 1961. OCLC 381680
• Middleton, Richard. Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open up University Printing, 1990. ISBN 978-0335152759
• Salzman, Eric. 20th century music: an introduction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967. OCLC 606812

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